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Pre-Inca
cultures
Some of the oldest civilizations appeared circa 6000 BC in the
coastal provinces of Chilca and Paracas, and in the highland
province of Callejón de Huaylas. Over the following three thousand
years, inhabitants switched from nomadic lifestyles to cultivating
land, as evidence from sites such as Jiskairumoko, Kotosh, and
Huaca Prieta demonstrates. Cultivation of plants such as corn and
cotton (Gossypium Barbadense) began, as well as the domestication
of animals such as the wild ancestors of the llama, the alpaca,
and the guinea pig. Inhabitants practiced domestic crafts such as
spinning and knitting of cotton and wool, basketry, and pottery.
The first cultures with which we are more familiar were those of
the Norte Chico civilization, from c. 3000 BCE, and the Chavin
culture, which emerged c. 900 BCE. Though the Chavin were among
the first since the builders of Norte Chico to construct
monumental temples, they do not seem to have developed a
significant middle class.
The Paracas culture emerged on the southern coast in around 300
BCE. They are known for their use of vicuña fibers instead of just
cotton to produce fine textiles—innovations that did not reach the
northern coast of Peru until centuries later. Coastal cultures
such as the Moche and Nazca flourished from about 100 BCE to about
700 CE: The Moche produced impressive metalwork, as well as some
of the finest pottery seen in the ancient world, while the Nazca
are known for their textiles and the enigmatic Nazca lines.
These coastal cultures eventually began to decline as a result of
recurring el Niño floods and droughts. In consequence, the Huari
and Tiwanaku, who dwelled inland in the Andes became the
predominant cultures of the region encompassing much modern-day
Peru and Bolivia. They were succeeded by powerful city-states,
such as Chancay, Sipan, and Cajamarca, and two empires: Chimor and
Chachapoyas.
These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of
cultivation, gold and silver craft, pottery, metallurgy, and
knitting. Around 700 BCE, they appear to have developed systems of
social organization that were the precursors of the Inca
civilization.
Not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the
Incas as the Incas expanded their empire, and many were openly
hostile. The people of the Chachapoyas culture were an example of
this, but they were eventually conquered and integrated into the
Inca Empire.
Inca Empire (1438-1572)
Inca expansion (1438 – 1527 CE)Main article: Inca Empire
The Incas created the most vast empire of pre-Columbian America.
The Tahuantinsuyo—which is derived from Quechua for "The Four
United Regions"—reached its greatest extension at the beginning of
the sixteenth century. It dominated a territory that included from
north to south Ecuador, part of Colombia, the northern half of
Chile, and the north-east part of Argentina; and from west to
east, from Bolivia to the Amazonian forests.
The empire originated from a tribe based in [[CuscoHIco
(Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], which became the capital. Pachacuti
was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the
Cuzco state. His offspring later ruled an empire by both violent
and peaceful conquest.
In Cuzco, the royal city was created to resemble a Cougar; the
head, the main royal structure, formed what is now known as
Sacsayhuaman. The Empire’s administrative, political, and military
center was located in Cuzco. The empire was divided into four
quarters: Chinchasuyo, Antisuyo, Contisuyo, and Collasuyo.
Quechua was the official language, imposed on the citizens. It was
the language of a tribe neighbouring the original tribe of the
empire. Conquered populations—tribes, kingdoms, states, and
cities—were allowed to practice their own religions and
lifestyles, but had to recognize Inca cultural practices as
superior to their own. Inti, the sun god, was to be worshipped as
one of the most important gods of the empire. His representation
on earth was the Inca ("Emperor").
The Tahuantinsuyo was organized in dominions with a stratified
society, in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by
an economy based on the collective property of the land. In fact,
the Inca Empire was conceived like an ambitious and audacious
civilizing project, based on a mythical thought, in which the
harmony of the relationships between the human being, nature, and
gods was truly essential.
Many interesting customs were observed, for example the
extravagant feast of Inti Raymi which gave thanks to the God Sun,
and the young women who were the Virgins of the Sun, sacrificial
virgins devoted to the Inti. The empire, being quite large, also
had an impressive transportation system of roads to all points of
the empire called the Inca Trail, and chasquis, message carriers
who relayed information from anywhere in the empire to Cuzco.
View of Machu PicchuMachu Picchu (Quechua: Old Peak; sometimes
called the "Lost City of the Incas") is a well-preserved
pre-Columbian Inca ruin located on a high mountain ridge above the
Urubamba Valley, about 70 km (44 mi) northwest of Cuzco. Elevation
measurements vary depending on whether the data refers to the ruin
or the extremity of the mountain; Machu Picchu tourist information
reports the elevation as 2,350 m (7,711 ft)[1]. Forgotten for
centuries by the outside world, although not by locals, it was
brought back to international attention by Yale archaeologist
Hiram Bingham, who rediscovered it in 1911 and wrote a
best-selling work about it. Peru is pursuing legal efforts to
retrieve thousands of artifacts that Bingham removed from the
site.
Although Machu Picchu is by far the most well-known
internationally, Peru boasts many other sites where the modern
visitor can see extensive and well-preserved ruins, remnants of
Inca-period and even older constructions. Much of the Inca
architecture and stonework found at these sites continues to
confound archaeologists. For example, at Sacsayhuaman, in Cuzco,
the zig-zag-shaped walls are comprised of massive boulders fitted
very precisely to one another's irregular, angular shapes. No
mortar holds them together, but nonetheless they have remained
absolutely solid through the centuries, surviving earthquakes that
flattened many of Cuzco's colonial constructions. Damage to the
walls visible today was mainly inflicted during battles between
the Spanish and the Inca, as well as later, in the colonial era.
As Cuzco grew, Sacsayhuaman's walls were partially dismantled, the
site becoming a convenient source of construction materials for
the city's newer inhabitants. Today we not only do not know how
these stones were shaped and smoothed, lifted on top of one
another (they really are very massive) or fitted together by the
Incas; we also don't know how they got the stones to the site in
the first place. The stone used is not native to the area, and
most likely came from mountains many miles away.
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire (1532-1572)
When the Spanish landed in 1531, Peru's territory was the nucleus
of the highly developed Inca civilization. Centered at Cuzco, the
Inca Empire extended over a vast region, stretching from northern
Ecuador to central Chile.
Francisco Pizarro and his brothers were attracted by the news of a
rich and fabulous kingdom. In 1532, they arrived in the country,
which they called Peru. (The forms Biru, Pirú, and Berú are also
seen in early records.) According to Raul Porras Barrenechea, Peru
is not a Quechuan nor Caribbean word, but Indo-Hispanic or hybrid.
At that moment, the Inca Empire was preoccupied by a five-year
civil war between two princes, Huáscar and Atahualpa. Taking
advantage of this, Pizarro carried out a coup d’état. On November
16, 1532, while the natives were in a celebration in Cajamarca,
the Spanish in a surprise move captured the Inca Atahualpa during
the Battle of Cajamarca, causing a great consternation among the
natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When
Huascar was killed, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of
the murder, executing him by strangulation.
For a period, Pizarro maintained the ostensible authority of the
Inca, recognizing Tupac Huallpa as the Inca after Atahualpa's
death. But the conqueror’s abuses made this façade too obvious.
Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous
rebellions were bloodily repressed. By March 23, 1534, Pizarro and
the Spanish had refounded the Inca city of Cuzco as a new Spanish
colonial settlement.
Establishing a stable colonial government was delayed for some
time by native revolts and bands of the Conquistadores (led by
Pizarro and Diego de Almagro) fighting among themselves. A long
civil war developed, from which the Pizarros emerged victorious at
the Battle of Las Salinas. In 1541, Pizarro was assassinated by a
faction led by Diego de Almagro (El Mozo), and the stability of
the original colonial regime was shaken up in the ensuing civil
war.
Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing
process. Its most significant milestone was the foundation of Lima
in January 1535, from which the political and administrative
institutions were organized. The new rulers instituted an
encomienda system, by which the Spanish extracted tribute from the
local population, part of which was forwarded to Seville in return
for converting the natives to Christianity. Title to the land
itself remained with the king of Spain. As governor of Peru,
Pizarro used the encomienda system to grant virtually unlimited
authority over groups of native Peruvians to his soldier
companions, thus forming the colonial land-tenure structure. The
indigenous inhabitants of Peru were now expected to raise Old
World cattle, poultry, and crops for their landlords. Resistance
was punished severely, giving rise to the "Black Legend".
The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these
territories, led to the creation of a Real Audiencia (Royal
Audience). The following year, in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru
(in Spanish, Virreinato del Perú) was established, with authority
over most of Spanish-ruled South America. (Colombia, Ecuador,
Panamá and Venezuela were split off as the Viceroyalty of New
Granada (in Spanish, Virreinato de Nueva Granada) in 1717; and
Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay were set up as the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776.)
In response to the internal strife plaguing the country after
Pizarro's death, Spain finally sent Blasco Núñez Vela to be Peru's
first viceroy in 1544. He was later killed by Pizarro's brother,
Gonzalo Pizarro, but a new viceroy, Pedro de la Gasca, eventually
managed to restore order, and captured and executed Gonzalo
Pizarro.
A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were
12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy
Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Indians.
While the attrition was not an organized attempt at genocide, the
results were similar. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian
names and rebuilt as Spanish towns centered around a plaza with a
church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca
cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of
their walls. Other Inca sites, like Huanuco Viejo, were abandoned
for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish.
Viceroyalty of Peru (1542-1824)
In 1542, the Spanish Crown created the Viceroyalty of Peru, which
was reorganized after the arrival of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo
in 1572. He put an end to the indigenous State of Vilcabamba,
executed Tupac Amaru I. He also sought economic development
through commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from
the silver mines of Potosí. He reused the Inca mita, a forced
labor program, to mobilize native communities for mining work.
This organization transformed Peru into the principal source of
Spanish wealth and power in South America.
The town of Lima, founded by Pizarro on January 18, 1535 as the
"Ciudad de Reyes" (City of Kings), became the seat of the new
viceroyalty. It grew into a powerful city, with jurisdiction over
most of Spanish South America. Precious metals passed through Lima
on its way to the Isthmus of Panama and from there to Seville,
Spain. On the local level, Spanish encomenderos depended on local
chieftains (curacas) to control even the most remote settlements,
in a rigorous hierarchy. By the 18th century, Lima had become a
distinguished and aristocratic colonial capital, seat of a
university and the chief Spanish stronghold in the Americas.
Nevertheless, throughout this period, the Inca were not entirely
suppressed. In the eighteenth century alone, there were fourteen
large uprisings, the most important of which were that of Juan
Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Sierra Uprising of Tupac Amaru II in
1780.
The creation of the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la
Plata (at the expense of its territory), the duty exemptions that
moved the commercial center from Lima to Caracas and Buenos Aires,
and the decrease of the mining and textile production determined
the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
The economic crisis favored the indigenous rebellion from 1780 to
1781. This rebellion was headed by Túpac Amaru II. At this time,
the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and the
degradation of the Royal power took place. The Creole rebellion of
Huánuco arose in 1812 and the rebellion of Cuzco arose between
1814 and 1816. These rebellions defended the liberal principles
sanctioned by the Constitution of Cadiz of 1812.
These events created a favorable climate so that emancipating
ideas developed between the Spanish Criollo people, or Creoles.
However, supported by the power of the Creole oligarchy, the
Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of the Spanish
dominion in South America.
Republic of Peru
Wars of independence (1810-1824)
José de San Martín's proclamation of the independence of Peru on
July 28, 1821 in Lima, Peru.Main article: Independence of Peru
Peru's movement toward independence was launched by an uprising of
Spanish landowners and their forces, led by José de San Martín of
Argentina and Simón Bolívar of Venezuela.San Martín, who had
displaced the royalists of Chile after the magnificent battle of
the Andes, and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1819, proclaimed
the independence of Peru in Lima on July 28, 1821, with the words
"... From this moment on, Peru is free and independent, by the
general will of the people and the justice of its cause that God
defends. Long live the homeland! Long live freedom! Long live our
independence!".
Emancipation was completed on December 1824, when General Antonio
José de Sucre defeated Spanish troops at the Battle of Ayacucho.
Spain made futile attempts to regain its former colonies, such as
at the Battle of Callao, but in 1879 finally recognized Peruvian
independence.
Territorial disputes (1824-1884)
After independence, Peru and its neighbors engaged in intermittent
territorial disputes.
A short-lived attempt to reunite Peru and Bolivia was made during
the period 1836–1839 when the Peru-Bolivian Confederation came
into existence, severe internal opposition let to its demise in
the War of the Confederation.[6]
In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until
1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The
Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a
diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the
committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on
April 5, 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the
department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in
the Atacama region.
Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica
and Tacna to be held years later, in order to self determine their
national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty,
and both countries could not determine the statutory framework. In
an arbitrage that both countries admitted, the USA decided Arica
to Chile and Tacna to Peru. The territorial loss and the extensive
looting of Peruvian cities by Chilean troops left scars on the
country's relations with Chile that have not yet fully healed.
Following the Ecuadorian-Peruvian War of 1941, the Rio Protocol
sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries.
Ongoing boundary disagreements led to a brief war in early 1981
and the Cenepa War in early 1995, but in 1998 the governments of
both countries signed a historic peace treaty that clearly
demarcated the international boundary between them. In late 1999,
the governments of Peru and Chile likewise similarly implemented
the last outstanding article of their 1929 border agreement.
Reconstruction (1884-1948)
After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of
rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of
social and economic reforms in order to recover from the damage of
the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.
In 1894, Nicolás de Piérola, after allying his party with the
Civil Party of Peru to organize guerillas with fighters to occupy
Lima, ousted Andrés Avelino Cáceres and once again became
president of Peru in 1895. After a brief period in which the
military once again controlled the country, civilian rule was
permanently established with Pierola's election in 1895. His
second term was successfully completed in 1899 and was marked with
the reconstruction of a devastated Peru by initiating fiscal,
military, religious, and civil reforms. Until the 1920s, this
period was called the "Aristocratic Republic", since most of the
presidents that ruled the country were mostly from the social
elite.
During Augusto B. Leguía's periods in government (1908–1912 and
1919–1930, the latter known as the “Oncenio” (the "Eleventh"), the
entrance of American capitals became general and the bourgeoisie
was favored. This politics along with the increase of the foreign
capital dependency, contributed to generate opposition focuses
between the landowner oligarchy as much as the most progressive
sectors of the Peruvian society.
In 1929, Peru and Chile signed a final peace treaty, the Treaty of
Lima by which Tacna returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently
the rich provinces of Arica and Tarapaca, but kept certain rights
to the port activities in Arica and decisions of what Chile can do
on those territories.
After the world-wide crisis of 1929, numerous brief governments
followed one another. The APRA party had the opportunity to cause
system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not
successful. This is a nationalistic movement, populist and
anti-imperialist headed by Victor Raul Haya de la Torre in 1924.
The communist party was created four years later and it was led by
Jose C. Mariategui.
Repression was brutal in the early 1930s and tens of thousands of
APRA followers (APRISTAS) were executed or imprisoned. This period
was also characterized by a sudden population growth and an
increase in urbanization. During World War II, Peru was the first
South American nation to align with the United States and its
allies against Germany and Japan.
In the mid-20th century, Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre (founder of
the APRA), together with José Carlos Mariátegui (leader of the
Peruvian Communist Party), were two major forces on Peruvian
politics. Ideologically opposed, they both managed to create the
first political parties that tackled the social and economic
problems of the country. Although Mariátegui died at a young age,
Haya de la Torre was twice elected president, but prevented by the
military from taking office.
President Bustamante y Rivero hoped to create a more democratic
government by limiting the power of the military and the
oligarchy. Elected with the cooperation of the APRA, conflict soon
arose between the President and Haya de la Torre. Without the
support of the APRA party, Bustamante y Rivero found his
presidency severely limited. The President disbanded his Aprista
cabinet and replaced it with a mostly military one. In 1948,
Minister Manuel A. Odria and other right-wing elements of the
Cabinet urged Bustamante y Rivero to ban the APRA, but when the
President refused, Odría resigned his post.
Dictatorial military governments (1948-1979)
In a military coup on October 29, Gen. Manuel A. Odria became the
new President. Odría's presidency was known as the Ochenio. He
came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all
others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him
great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy
allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social
policies. At the same time, however, civil rights were severely
restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his régime.
It was feared that his dictatorship would run indefinitely, so it
came as a surprise when Odría allowed new elections. During this
time, Fernando Belaúnde Terry started his political career, and
led the slate submitted by the National Front of Democratic Youth.
After the National Election Board refused to accept his candidacy,
he led a massive protest, and the striking image of Belaúnde
walking with the flag was featured by newsmagazine Caretas the
following day, in an article entitled "Así Nacen Los Lideres"
("Thus Are Leaders Born"). Belaúnde's 1956 candidacy was
ultimately unsuccessful, as the dictatorship-favored right-wing
candidacy of Manuel Prado Ugarteche took first place.
Belaúnde ran for president once again in the National Elections of
1962, this time with his own party, Acción Popular. The results
were very tight; he ended in second place, following Víctor Raúl
Haya de la Torre (APRA), by less than 14000 votes. Since none of
the candidates manage to get the Constitutionally-established
minimum of one third of the vote required to win outright,
selection of the President would fall to Congress; the long-held
antagonistic relationship between the military and APRA prompted
Haya de la Torre to make a deal with former dictator Odria, who
had come in third, which would result in Odria taking the
Presidency in a coalition government.
However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian
military to depose Prado and install a military junta, led by
Ricardo Perez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and
held new elections in 1963, which were won by Belaúnde by a more
comfortable but still narrow five percent margin.
Throughout Latin America in the 1960s, communist movements
inspired by the Cuban Revolution sought to win power through
guerrilla warfare. The Revolutionary Left Movement (Peru), or MIR,
launched an insurrection that had been crushed by 1965, but Peru's
internal strife would only accelerate until its climax in the
1990s.
The military has been prominent in Peruvian history. Coups have
repeatedly interrupted civilian constitutional government. The
most recent period of military rule (1968-1980) began when General
Juan Velasco Alvarado overthrew elected President Fernando
Belaúnde Terry of the Popular Action Party (AP). As part of what
has been called the "first phase" of the military government's
nationalist program, Velasco undertook an extensive agrarian
reform program and nationalized the fish meal industry, some
petroleum companies, and several banks and mining firms.
General Francisco Morales Bermúdez replaced Velasco in 1975,
citing Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health.
Morales Bermúdez moved the revolution into a more conservative
"second phase," tempering the radical measures of the first phase
and beginning the task of restoring the country's economy. A
Constitutional Assembly was created in 1979, which was led by
Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre. Morales Bermúdez presided over the
return to civilian government in accordance with a new
constitution drawn up in 1979.
Democratic restoration to the present day (1979-)
During the 1980s, cultivation of illicit coca was established in
large areas on the eastern Andean slope. Rural insurgent
movements, like the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso, SL) and the
Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) increased during this
time and derived significant financial support from alliances with
the narcotraffickers, leading to the Internal conflict in Peru.
In the May 1980 elections, President Fernando Belaúnde Terry was
returned to office by a strong plurality. One of his first actions
as President was the return of several newspapers to their
respective owners. In this way, freedom of speech once again
played an important part in Peruvian politics. Gradually, he also
attempted to undo some of the most radical effects of the Agrarian
Reform initiated by Velasco, and reversed the independent stance
that the Military Government of Velasco had with the United
States.
Belaúnde's second term was also marked with the unconditional
support for Argentinian forces during the Falklands War with the
United Kingdom in 1982. Belaúnde declared that "Peru was ready to
support Argentina with all the resources it needed." This included
a number of fighter planes and possibly personnel from the
Peruvian Air Force, as well as ships, and medical teams.
Belaunde's government proposed a peace settlement between the two
countries, but it was rejected by both sides, as both claimed
undiluted sovereignty of the territory. In response to Chile's
support of the UK, Belaúnde called for Latin American unity.
The nagging economic problems left over from the previous military
government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the "El Niño"
weather phenomenon in 1982–83, which caused widespread flooding in
some parts of the country, severe droughts in others, and
decimated the schools of ocean fish that are one of the country's
major resources. After a promising beginning, Belaúnde's
popularity eroded under the stress of inflation, economic
hardship, and terrorism.
In 1985, the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) won
the presidential election, bringing Alan García to office. The
transfer of the presidency from Belaúnde to García on July 28,
1985, was Peru's first exchange of power from one democratically
elected leader to another in 40 years.
With a parliamentary majority for the first time in APRA's
history, Alan García started his administration with hopes for a
better future. However, economic mismanagement led to
hyperinflation from 1988 to 1990. García's term in office was
marked by bouts of hyperinflation, which reached 7,649% in 1990
and had a cumulative total of 2,200,200% between July 1985 and
July 1990, thereby profoundly destabilizing the Peruvian economy.
Owing to such chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol,
was replaced by the Inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced
the nuevo sol ("new sol") in July 1991, at which time the new sol
had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. During his
administration, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to
$720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's Gross Domestic Product
dropped 20%. By the end of his term, national reserves were a
negative $900 million.
The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in
Peru and partly contributed to the rise of the violent rebel
movement Shining Path. The García administration unsuccessfully
sought a military solution to the growing terrorism, committing
human rights violations which are still under investigation.
Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from
Sendero Luminoso, and allegations of official corruption, voters
chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician,
Alberto Fujimori, as president in 1990. The first round of the
election was won by well-known writer Vargas Llosa, a conservative
candidate, but Fujimori defeated him in the second round. Fujimori
implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to drop from
7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991. Faced with opposition to his
reform efforts, Fujimori dissolved Congress in the auto-golpe of
April 5, 1992. He then revised the constitution; called new
congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic
reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies,
creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management
of the economy.
Fujimori's administration was dogged by several insurgent groups,
most notably Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), which carried on a
terrorist campaign in the countryside throughout the 1980s and
1990s. He cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in
largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred
by atrocities committed by the both Peruvian security forces and
the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre
by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of Tarata and
Frecuencia Latina by Shining Path. Those examples subsequently
came to be seen as symbols of the human rights violations
committed during the last years of violence. With the capture of
Abimael Guzmán (known as President Gonzalo) in September 1992,
Shining Path received a severe blow which practically destroyed
the organization.
In December 1996, a group of insurgents belonging to the MRTA took
over the Japanese embassy in Lima, taking 72 people hostage.
Military commandos stormed the embassy compound in May 1997, which
resulted in the death of all 15 hostage takers, one hostage, and 2
commandos. It later emerged, however, that at least eight of the
rebels may have been killed after surrendering, following the
orders of Fujimori's security chief Vladimiro Montesinos.
Fujimori's constitutionally questionable decision to seek a third
term and subsequent tainted victory in June 2000 brought political
and economic turmoil. A bribery scandal that broke just weeks
after he took office in July forced Fujimori to call new elections
in which he would not run. The scandal involved Vladimiro
Montesinos, who was shown in a video broadcast on TV bribing a
politician to change sides. Montesinos subsequently emerged as the
center a vast web of illegal activities, including embezzlement,
graft, drug trafficking, as well as human rights violations
committed during the war against Sendero Luminoso.
In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and self-exiled to
Japan, avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and
corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. His main
intelligence chief, Vladimiro Montesinos, fled Peru shortly
afterwards. Authorities in Venezuela arrested him in Caracas in
June 2001 and turned him over to Peruvian authorities; he is now
imprisoned and charged with acts of corruption and human rights
violations committed during Fujimori's administration.
A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on
the responsibility of conducting the new presidential and
congressional elections. The elections were held in April 2001;
observers considered them to be free and fair. Alejandro Toledo
(who led the opposition against Fujimori) defeated former
President Alan García.
The new elected government, took office July 28, 2001. The Toledo
Administration has managed to restore some degree of democracy to
Peru following the authoritarianism and corruption that plagued
both the Fujimori and García governments. Innocents wrongfully
tried by military courts during the war against terrorism
(1980-2000) are now allowed to receive new trials in civilian
courts. Trials of those accused of corruption and collusion in the
corrupt dealings of the Fujimori years are underway.
On August 28, 2003, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CVR),
which had been charged with studying the roots of the violence of
the 1980–2000 period, presented its formal report to the
President. The Government of Peru is now weighing its response to
the CVR's recommendations that human rights violators be tried and
that the government take measures to, in some fashion, indemnify
parts of the population that suffered during those years, chiefly
rural Peruvians of ethnically Indian descent.
President Toledo has been forced to made a number of cabinet
changes, mostly in response to personal scandals. Toledo's
governing coalition has a plurality in Congress and must negotiate
on an ad hoc basis with other parties to form majorities on
legislative proposals. Toledo's popularity in the polls has
suffered throughout the past year, due in part to family scandals
and in part to dissatisfaction amongst workers with their share of
benefits from Peru's macroeconomic success. After strikes by
teachers and agricultural producers led to nationwide road
blockages in May 2003, Toledo declared a state of emergency that
suspended some civil liberties and gave the military power to
enforce order in 12 regions. The state of emergency has since been
reduced to only the few areas where Shining Path was operating.
On July 28, 2006 former president Alan García became the current
President of Peru. He won the 2006 elections after winning in a
runoff against Ollanta Humala.
On August 15, 2007 a very strong earthquake happened measuring 8.0
on the Moment magnitude scale, lasted for about two minutes and
had its hypocenter located at 150 kilometres (93 mi)
south-southeast of Lima. |
